Canada is taking in more immigrants and refugees than ever before. In 2023, asylum claims in Canada hit an all-time high of 144,035, and last year, Canada moved into the top 5 recipient countries of asylum seekers (UNHCR Canada 2024; Keung 2024). The impact of this demographic shift has reverberated throughout Canadian society at multiple levels, from national policy challenges to local community responses. With the influx of so many newcomers, questions arise about how our country will be able to handle these increasing numbers. Refugee families face numerous challenges to thriving in Canada, including housing, language barriers, economic stability, and mental health. Researchers are thus exploring the question of how best to integrate these newcomers into their resettled lives amidst these multidimensional factors.
This paper will review the existing literature surrounding quality of life for immigrants and refugee families in Canada, exploring themes of cultural identity, resilience, and material well being. Then, this paper will present ideas for future research on this topic, making arguments for longitudinal methodologies and a focus on the effectiveness of adult education programs. Lastly, this paper will review existing Canadian policies around refugee settlement programs and make suggestions for initiatives that would improve the well-being of refugee families in Canada, with a particular focus on addressing the critical gaps in underfunded language acquisition services. The successful integration and wellbeing of immigrant and refugee families in Canada depends on a multitude of interwoven social and economic factors, creating the need for accessible, informed, and well-funded settlement programs.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this literature review is to present a comprehensive picture of the quality of life for immigrant and refugee families in Canada. This will be accomplished by exploring recent research in Canadian refugee communities to determine the key factors that contribute to wellbeing and examining the main issues that face refugee families. Through this analysis, it becomes possible to determine the most prominent factors that either improve or worsen quality of life to inform future research and policies. The review will present key theoretical frameworks used in the literature and summarize the methodological approaches used across studies. Once that is understood, this paper can then identify key themes in the research, being material wellbeing, family dynamics, resilience and adaptation strategies, language barriers, and cultural identity. The review will also critically analyze this research to identify methodological strengths and limitations across studies and recommend avenues for future research. To inform future policies, it is necessary to summarize what is known about quality of life for immigrant and refugee families through a literature review that highlights the interconnected nature of factors affecting wellbeing.
Key Terms
To fully understand the different factors that contribute to well-being, it is first necessary to define key terms. Quality of life, as a start, is often used as an umbrella term to refer to an individual’s subjective rating of their satisfaction with life (Upton 2015). Well-being and quality of life are often grouped together, and sometimes used interchangeably. Most authors agree that well-being is a complex and multi-dimensional topic with a meaning that changes across cultures, languages, disciplines, and historical periods (Herati et al. 2023). Well-being is different for each group. Thus, this paper will prioritize the perspectives and experiences of refugees and immigrants themselves, defining well-being through the dimensions identified as most significant by these populations in the reviewed research. Rather than imposing external definitions of success or integration, this approach acknowledges the agency of refugee and immigrant families in determining what constitutes meaningful quality of life in their Canadian context.
Another important term in this paper is refugee, which can be defined as an individual who has fled their home country due to persecution, conflict, or human rights violations and has been formally classified as such by a host country like Canada (Aldiabat et al. 2021). Acknowledging that there can be stigma associated with the term refugee and recognizing that some of the persons researched are in the process of becoming Canadian citizens, this paper will interchangeably use the term ‘newcomers’ in a similar approach to Aldiabat et al. (2021). The term ‘immigrant’, according to Statistics Canada, refers to a person who has been granted the right to live in Canada permanently by immigration authorities (Statistics Canada 2016). While this paper will mainly focus on refugee newcomers, some of the literature reviewed groups immigrants and refugees together, so as such, it is occasionally necessary to discuss both groups. With quality of life, wellbeing, refugee, and immigrant being the main terminology in this paper, one additional concept that holds importance and thus requires definition is resilience. The concept of resilience comes up quite frequently across refugee integration research, and can be defined in a multitude of ways. A common socio-ecological definition of resilience centers around the capacity to absorb challenges while transforming to maintain one’s function, identity, structure, and feedback (Gyan et al. 2023). Drawing on research by Gyan et al. (2023), this paper will also consider the redefinition of resilience as an individual’s ability to integrate into a new society without losing their cultural identity, history, and experiences from their culture of origin.
Theoretical Frameworks
Across recent literature on immigrant and refugee quality of life, several theoretical frameworks have been used to guide research approaches. Among these, one of the most prominent is the Social Determinants of Health (SDoH) framework. This well-known framework proposes that health is shaped by the environment one lives in, through individual behaviours, socio-demographic factors, cultural norms, and political contexts (Elshahat et al. 2024). The determinants, as presented by the CDC, are education access and quality, health care and quality, neighbourhood and built environment, social and community context, and economic stability (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2024). The SDoH framework was referenced across multiple studies as a tool to identify key factors affecting health and wellbeing (Sim et al. 2023; Aldiabat et al. 2021; Elshahat et al. 2024).
Another influential social-ecological theory used was Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which provides a framework to observe four levels of influence (intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, and societal) on well-being (Herati et al. 2023). This multi-level perspective helped researchers understand how various systems interact to affect immigrant and refugee experiences (Beiser, Puente-Duran, and Hou 2015).
Additional theoretical approaches include the “years since immigration effect” (YSIE) theory, and the resilience conceptual framework, as defined above. The YSIE theory looks at a noted decline in immigrants' health over years and the resilience conceptual framework was important to identifying coping strategies and adaptation. Lastly, the Acculturation Gap-Distress Model, used by Soltan, Giguere, and Safdar (2023), addresses intergenerational dynamics by examining how differences in acculturation rates between parents and children affect family cohesion and individual wellbeing. Together, these theoretical frameworks and models provide complementary lenses for understanding the complex factors that influence quality of life for immigrant and refugee families in Canada.
Methodological Approaches
There were a multitude of methodological approaches used across studies. Mixed methods approaches were quite common, with several studies using a convergent mixed-methods design that collected and analyzed quantitative and qualitative data in parallel before merging the results to provide a more comprehensive understanding (Khakpour et al. 2023; Sim et al. 2023). One interesting approach was a concurrent multi-method strategy that integrated qualitative interviews, photovoice, and a survey, before triangulating findings to enhance robustness and address knowledge gaps that one method alone could not fill (Elshahat et al. 2024). For studies that used qualitative methods, semi-structured interviews were widely utilized, often with care taken to employ interviewers with relevant cultural or linguistic backgrounds. Thematic analysis was a common approach for analyzing this qualitative data. In more vulnerable populations like young children, one study used the creative approach of drawing techniques to access children’s inner feelings (Herati et al. 2023). On the quantitative side, questionnaire surveys were common, often using descriptive statistics and correlation or regression analysis to examine relationships between variables. Perhaps most importantly, the research highlighted the importance of cultural sensitivity in their methods, including using bilingual research assistants, providing translated materials, and respecting cultural and religious practices.
The populations studied covered a diversity of demographics and ethnicities within Canada’s newcomer population, primarily focusing on recent immigrants and refugees from various regions including Afghanistan, Arab countries, Syria, and Sri Lanka. Observed research also covered a variety of familial age categories, including young children, emerging adults, and older parents. Studies were conducted across different cities in Canada, including but not limited to Vancouver, Toronto, Montreal, and Hamilton, reflecting varied settlement experiences and contexts.
Main Themes
The first main theme that presented itself was material wellbeing. Access to quality housing, food security, employment, and healthcare are obvious and important factors to the quality of life for immigrants and refugee families. Housing in particular is an important social determinant of health and a good indicator of the successful integration of immigrant-refugee groups in resettled countries (Herati et al. 2023). Further, it was found that the availability of material resources within the home, such as one’s own bedroom and enough space, contributed to refugee children’s sense of satisfaction (Herati et al. 2023). Food security was also a key challenge, as one study found that more than 93% of refugee households were food insecure (Khakpour et al. 2023). The high cost of living in Canada’s major cities and price inflation for basic life necessities like housing and food left many newcomers particularly anxious (Elshahat et al. 2024). Employment barriers and economic challenges were also main factors. As the process of obtaining employment can be complicated for newcomers and vulnerable groups, refugees often face significant barriers to employment, which in turn holds them back from achieving financial security (Aldiabat et al. 2021; Khakpour et al. 2023). Lastly, healthcare services resulted in complicated and ambivalent feelings. While some newcomers found health services to be ethical and professional, others struggled with long wait times and lack of access to non-insured health services such as dental-care and pharma-care (Elsahat et al. 2024; Aldiabat et al. 2021). Together, these material challenges not only shape the external conditions of newcomers’ lives, but also create the foundation for deeper psychological stressors.
Another key theme across recent research was the way that family dynamics played a role in well-being. A key finding regarding intergenerational dynamics explained how refugee children often have more exposure than their parents to the host country's culture through attending school and spending time with peers (Soltan, Giguere, and Safdar 2023). This compounds onto normal intergenerational differences, thus leading to stress and lower family cohesion, which becomes the acculturation gap noted earlier (Soltan et al. 2023). It was found that the number of children could have a profound impact on refugee parental well-being through a positive relationship with psychological distress, but also that parent-child interactions were often positive and were beneficial to mental health (George and Jettner 2016). This illustrates that the role of family in refugee quality of life is complex and difficult to understand without cultural context and a nuanced perspective.
One particularly interesting theme was resilience and adaptation strategies. Refugee resilience was conceptualized in great depth by Gyan et al. (2023), but the topic also came up in other studies. Resilience is an important component to refugee well-being because it helps manage migration stressors and increases adaptability, ultimately facilitating integration. One example of this was the coping mechanisms studied by Sim et al. (2023), which involved positive reframing, problem solving, planning, and religion. The importance of family was also noted as a protective resource for coping with adversity (Sim et al. 2023). These coping strategies show the resilience of refugees, and how this concept is important across age groups. Resilience was also found to be a wellbeing determinant in immigrant-refugee children, as a positive self-view, confidence in their own strengths, and satisfaction with their actions and decisions helped to overcome certain challenges in coming to Canada and ultimately feel happy (Herati et al. 2023).
Another key theme was integration and cultural identity. Refugees found challenges in finding a sense of belonging and balancing integration with cultural preservation (Marcos et al. 2022; Gyan et al. 2023). Marcos et al. (2022) argued that especially for refugee children, integration and well-being are intrinsically connected, as the two are deeply intertwined and mutually reinforcing. It was noted that Canadian educational experiences are often well suited for refugee children, however did not have the same amount of success for integrating adults (Aldiabat et al. 2021). Furthering these findings on identity, parents’ identification with Canadian culture positively influences their adult childrens’ psychological adaptation and wellbeing (Soltan et al. 2023). However, many participants across studies reported experiences of discrimination and microaggressions that severely impacted their mental health (Elshahat et al. 2024; Gyan et al. 2023). Racism, language, and cultural differences were noted as difficult barriers to integration (Gyan et al. 2023). These findings underscore the interplay between cultural preservation and societal integration and its impacts.
A final important factor to quality of life for many newcomers is the ability to communicate. Language barriers are directly associated with poor mental health among Arab immigrants and refugees (Elshahat et al. 2024). Refugee parents in Canada described how the inability to speak English had pervasive negative impacts on their mental state (Sim et al. 2023). For younger people, language barriers can impede the development of friendships and social networks, which are critical for well-being (Gyan et al. 2023). This difficulty in communicating can lead to social isolation and a lack of belonging (Gyan et al. 2023). Further, disparities in host country language proficiency can create challenges between parents and children, potentially causing stress in family dynamics (Soltan et al. 2023). Language barriers also create significant obstacles in accessing essential services such as healthcare, employment, and government benefits (Sim et al. 2023).
Across ten studies, this literature review has examined the factors that immigrant and refugee families find important to their quality of life in Canada. The analysis revealed five overarching themes. Firstly, material resources, such as adequate housing, food security, and accessible employment form the foundation for stability in resettlement. Next, intergenerational relations influence psychological adjustment in ambivalent ways. The power of resilience as an individual trait and a collective process is also a key factor that helps newcomers navigate challenges while maintaining cultural connections. Language barriers appear as consistent, critical obstacles that affect almost all aspects of life from employment prospects to social belonging. Cultural identity and integration is the final theme, which presents ongoing negotiation for newcomers to integrate into their new society while preserving heritage, despite challenges of racism and microaggressions. These interconnected factors demonstrate that refugee and immigrant wellbeing is extremely multidimensional and thus requires comprehensive and holistic approaches in both research and policy development.
FUTURE RESEARCH
Although there is a plentiful wealth of research around the well-being of refugee families in Canada, there are still notable gaps in research that could be addressed in future initiatives. For instance, as the influx of refugees in Canada is still relatively new, the studies observed in this literature were all cross-sectional in design. Although there have been other longitudinal studies around refugee well-being, it would be beneficial in the future if longitudinal studies made up an overall greater percentage of the research in this topic. Scholars Soltan, Giguere, and Safdar (2023) and Sim et al. (2023) share this idea, and call for longitudinal approaches to further their respective research in acculturation gaps and refugee parent resettlement. Longitudinal versions of these studies would be beneficial because they would allow researchers to examine changes and developments in well-being over time, rather than only providing a snapshot at a single point. It is worthwhile to explore different stages of the resettlement and adjustment process, as well-being is important not only when newcomers are firstly adapting to life in Canada, but in the years to come as well, and therefore should be studied as such.
Building off of the claim made by Aldiabat et al. (2021) that refugee parents find the Canadian educational system works for their children but not them, another future avenue of research to consider would be the effectiveness of adult education programs. Aldiabat et al. describes a paradox with which Canadian education is great for refugee children but the English language learning programs are not designed in a way that works for them. They also state that this could provide a starting point for separate studies in order to enhance understanding of the lived experiences of newcomers. Thus, future research could look further into refugee parent’s involvement in language learning programs to determine their effectiveness and the factors that may contribute to their success. As language barriers were seen as one of the key themes in refugee wellbeing, and as they also contribute to acculturation gaps between parents and children, it would be beneficial for researchers in this field to look deeper into the current initiatives. This research could help inform and shape future policies around the development and design of English and/or French language learning programs.
POLICY REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Recent research on refugee well-being has proved that language is a key factor to quality of life and integration for newcomers to Canada. The theme of language barriers came up as prominent and interconnected in the literature review, impacting foundational necessities like access to employment as well as interpersonal needs like social connection. Thus, learning language is often one of the first and most important priorities when newcomers first settle in Canada. An issue in attaining this, however, is that quality language classes can be very costly, which is difficult for newcomers who may not be financially secure. On the other hand, free language learning options may not provide high-quality instruction or have flexible schedules or locations. The consequence of this is that there is a profound need for affordable, accessible, quality language learning programs targeted towards newcomers. The Government of Canada has addressed this need for accessible language learning opportunities through the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) or Cours de langue pour les immigrants au Canada (CLIC) programs. These language classes are incredibly important as they are free for permanent residents and protected persons (refugees), and are taught by qualified, experienced teachers, often with flexible locations and schedules.
However, although the LINC program is very beneficial for newcomers, access to these free classes is significantly more limited than the Government of Canada advertises them to be. In reality, many newcomers face extensive wait times before even beginning the process of language learning. Individuals often wait months before receiving an assessment, then up to a year to actually secure a spot in a class (Aldous, Turner, and Gupta 2024). This imperatively needed program does not have the capacity to meet the current demand.
For instance, Immigrant Services Calgary reported that the waitlist for LINC classes has gone up to a staggering 7,455 people as of January 2024 (Aldous et al. 2024). For context, in April 2022, there were only about 500 people on the waitlist. Charlie Wang, the interim CEO of the Calgary Centre for Newcomers, stated “I’ve been working in the sector for 18 years, and this is probably the worst time in terms of the waiting list for the language classes” (Aldous et al. 2024). This problem is not just limited to the city of Calgary, as similar waitlist issues are seen across the country. These long delays have extremely detrimental effects, setting people back years behind in terms of their settlement journey, delaying their job hunt, and ultimately affecting their mental health and financial stability.
Compounding the issue, the funding for refugee resettlement programs has just been drastically cut. According to the IRCC’s Departmental plan, the total budget for immigration services is projected to decrease significantly from $6.5 billion in 2023–24 to just $3.7 billion by 2026–27 (IRCC 2024). That is a reduction of $2.8 billion over the span of just a couple years. These cuts, which include substantial reductions to voted expenditures, raise concerns about the federal government's capacity to maintain critical programming such as the LINC language instruction initiative during a time where it is already burdened with long waitlists and increased demand.
Spokespeople from the IRCC explained that these budget cuts are connected to the reduction of the federal government’s immigration levels for the next three years. Specifically, it was stated that “the amount of resources available for settlement services depends on how many newcomers are expected to arrive. Since fewer newcomers are expected in 2025-2027, available resources have been reduced to match this decrease. This has resulted in a reduction in service providers” (Ryan 2025). However, this rationale ignores the reality that the previous funding levels were already insufficient to meet existing needs. Reducing the support now has only exacerbated the crisis.
The consequences are already being felt nationwide. Across Canada, programs are being shut down, staff are being laid off, and students are being left without support or alternative resources. At Vancouver Community College alone, 800 students were displaced as the program was cut, resulting in a strike in January 2025 to protest the lost funding (Williams and Stallone 2025).
In light of these recent developments, the policy suggestion that this paper recommends is a reinstatement of the funding for refugee resettlement programs, with a specific focus on the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada program. When cutting the funding to these necessary programs, the federal government did not take into account that even though they have lowered immigration targets, there are still many newcomers currently in Canada who need help and support and rely on these programs.
The federal government should increase targeted funding for the LINC program and related settlement services in order to reduce waitlists and improve accessibility for immigrants and refugees already residing in Canada. This funding should be allocated based on current need rather than project immigration targets, ensuring that service delivery meets the demands of existing newcomers. With an increase in funding for the LINC program, educational centres can rehire laid off instructors, expand digital class access, and increase evening and weekend classes for working newcomers to make the program more accessible and reduce the overwhelmingly long waitlist. Need-based funding models, rather than projection-based, are fundamentally important to supporting the real and immediate needs of Canada’s current refugee population. These improvements would directly address the current system’s failure to meet demand and would better support the social and economic integration of newcomers. They would also improve intergenerational dynamics of refugee families, by reducing acculturation gaps through education and integration. Failure to invest in language instruction not only undermines individual well-being, but also broader policy goals around workforce participation and community cohesion.
CONCLUSION
It is a complicated time to be a newcomer to Canada. Record high numbers of migration combined with billion-dollar budget cuts to essential programs mean that the immigration and settlement system is underfunded and overwhelmed. As a result, many newcomers are facing significant challenges to accessing settlement services, affordable housing, healthcare, and employment opportunities, while also battling racism, language barriers, and cultural dynamics. This paper has explored the complex landscape of quality of life for immigrant and refugee families in Canada through a comprehensive examination of current research and policy. Reviewing literature revealed five, of many, interconnected dimensions of newcomer wellbeing. These included material resources, family dynamics, resilience abilities, language barriers, and cultural integration. The overlap between these themes underscore that successful integration depends on addressing multiple factors simultaneously.
Looking forward, this paper identified several directions for future research, emphasizing the need for longitudinal studies to track integration outcomes over time and across stages. The effectiveness of adult education programs was also noted as a key point for future research to ensure that children are not the only refugee demographic who benefit from the Canadian education system. Further, throughout all dimensions of wellbeing, language acquisition consistently appears as a critical factor enabling access to services, employment, social connection, and ultimately, a sense of belonging. The policy analysis thus revealed a troubling disconnect between Canada’s reduced immigration targets and the resources allocated to support newcomer integration. The significant cuts to settlement programs, particularly language classes like LINC, have created substantial barriers for refugees attempting to learn crucial skills. This suggests an urgent need to realign settlement service funding with actual needs rather than immigration targets alone. Language learning programs in particular require substantial reinvestment to address growing waitlists and ensure timely access.
The successful integration of these newcomers will not only depend on their individual resilience and family connections but also on Canada’s commitment to providing meaningful support through culturally-informed research, evidence-based policies, and adequately funded programs. Newcomers should be met with sustained support and inclusion in Canada, upon their arrival and throughout their long-term settlement journey. There has been too much time lost on waiting lists. Investments in refugee families' quality of life cannot delay any longer.
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